Maccoby on Narcissistic Leadership

Narcissistic Leadership is a phenomenon in management said to reflect an unhealthy self-obsession, often at the expense of others. According to Seth Rosenthal ¹, it is an aspect of personality encompassing grandiosity, arrogance, self-absorption, entitlement, fragile self-esteem, and hostility when threatened. Personality researcher Michael Maccoby suggested that although narcissism in Leadership can bring about unfavourable outcomes, it may also be required for organisational success. This article examines current theories on narcissistic Leadership and offers arguments for and against its requirement for success.

We'll explore the origins of the concept of narcissism, Freud's view of narcissism as a childhood developmental stage, its recognition today as a sub-clinical trait of personality, and its role in effective Leadership. The findings and suggestions from Michael Maccoby's 2007 book Narcissistic Leaders: Who Succeeds And Who Fails² will be explored, as well as criticisms of his conclusions. We'll look at narcissism as a component of dark personality, according to Delroy Paulhus³, and its companion traits, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Sadism, all of which are operational in everyday society. Finally, we'll explore how narcissistic Leadership has the potential to cause damage to those who follow them.

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Narcissism as a “Trait” of Personality (not a “Type”)

We'll consider Michael Maccoby's view on Narcissistic Leadership shortly, but first, let's take a broader look at personality.

Human beings discriminate by default. We observe our environment and then make decisions, either consciously or subconsciously, about how best to act or to label something. In this act of labelling, we fool ourselves into thinking these things we experience are fixed and unchangeable. We put things into mental boxes where they are easily retrievable later. But in doing so, we (and our brains) make the mistake of assuming the world and its people are concrete. This is so with the concept of personality – we believe people are like characters in a book or a movie when, in fact, we are not like this at all.

The Trait Approach

There are many theoretical approaches to personality, including the trait approach. The trait approach is a traditionally scientific (psychometric) way to understand individual differences in human beings. It says that personality is inherent in us and can be determined through methodologically robust scientific methods. Traits, according to this approach, are reasonably stable and predictable aspects of character which exist along a continuum from low to high. Costa & McCrae's Big 5 (with the acronym OCEAN) is a contemporary trait approach to personality ⁴.

The Type Approach

The “Type” approach to personality, on the other hand, suggests that human beings are either one thing or another, an introvert or an extrovert, for example. The most well-known measure in the business world is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). In psychometrics, the MBTI is not considered methodologically or empirically reliable or valid. Instead, we should consider MBTI more like a horoscope than an accurate reflection of who and what we are. Therefore, when considering narcissism as an aspect of personality, we should consider it along a scale from low to high rather than something fixed.

That said, the trait approach has its critics, too. The trait approach suggests that although conditions have a bearing on our behaviour, our default responses are predictable most of the time. It does not, for example, consider the social impact on personality or the effect of repressed childhood experiences on personality development, such as that proposed by Freud.

Freud on Narcissism

The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, adopted the term “narcissism” from the myth of Narcissus to describe a fundamental aspect of human personality development. In his 1914 essay, On Narcissism: An Introduction ⁵, Freud conceptualised narcissism as a normal developmental stage in children. However, further healthy development requires the child to recognise the legitimacy and validity of other human beings. They must cast off this “primary narcissism” and develop love and empathy for others.

Freud described two primary forms of narcissism:

Primary Narcissism

This refers to the early, infantile form of narcissism, where a child's love and attachment are primarily focused inward. Usually, around 12 to 24 months, infants develop a concept of self, an identity separate from primary caregivers. According to Freud, this primary narcissism is necessary for a child's survival and the development of their sense of self.

Primary narcissism can be observed in children and in what Freud calls “primitive populations” who engage in “magical thinking”. For example, believing that wishing for something will make it appear or that casting spells will really affect people and events. These behaviours reflect a belief that the self is all-powerful and can influence external reality.

Secondary Narcissism

As children grow and develop healthily, they transfer some of their primary narcissism onto objects or people such as their parents. This marks the transition from primary to secondary narcissism and is inextricably linked to sexuality. The child's attachment to external objects or individuals can include idealising figures and forming emotional bonds.

The transition from primary to secondary narcissism is a natural and necessary part of human development. It is the foundation for the capacity to love, form relationships, and develop a sense of self. However, secondary narcissism can arise in pathology such as schizophrenia. Here, the person's libido (sexual drive) withdraws from objects in the world and may produce megalomania. The secondary narcissism of psychological illness, Freud suggests, is a magnified, extreme manifestation of primary narcissism.

The term “narcissism” in contemporary discourse often carries connotations of excessive self-love and self-centredness. However, Freud's original concept was rooted in the essential role that narcissism plays in human psychology and development. Where narcissism is observed in socially reprehensible behaviour,

Origins of The Concept of Narcissism

The term “narcissism” finds its roots in ancient Greek mythology and Narcissus, a strikingly handsome youth, son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Liriope. According to the Roman poet Ovid, His mother consulted the seer Tiresias about her son's future and he predicted that the boy would live a long life only if he never “came to know himself”.

His extraordinary beauty attracted many admirers and was said to have been pursued by both men and women but scorned all advances. One day, while hunting with companions in the woods, he encountered his own reflection in a clear pool of water. Captivated by the beauty of his reflection, Narcissus became captivated. Not realising it was his own reflection, he attempted to embrace the image in the water and drowned.

Another version of the story suggests that he was so entranced by his beauty that he couldn't bear to leave the pool. Not eating or drinking, eventually, he withered and died by the pool. Much like the contemporary narcissist, Narcissus' love for his own reflection proved to be his undoing. In some versions of the myth, a flower, the narcissus or daffodil, is said to have bloomed near the spot where he died.

The Dark Tetrad: A Contemporary Take On Narcissism

Personality psychology provides a rich foundation for understanding narcissism and its relationships with other dark personality traits. Within the dark tetrad of personality, which encompasses narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism, narcissism appears to take centre stage due to its pervasive presence in everyday life. The following delves into the nuanced understanding of narcissism in the context of personality psychology, with a focus on how it relates to the other dark personality traits within the tetrad.

Narcissism

The trait approach to personality suggests that narcissism, at its core, is characterised by an excessive preoccupation with one's self. It features an insatiable need for admiration and a conspicuous lack of empathy for others. This self-centredness is a defining feature that underlies a range of behaviours and attitudes observed in narcissistic individuals. In the realm of personality psychology, researchers have provided valuable insights into the various facets of narcissism and its implications.

Delroy Paulhus, a renowned researcher in personality psychology, has delved into the dark side of personality, including narcissism. His work has extended beyond clinical narcissism to explore the concept of “subclinical” or everyday narcissism. Subclinical narcissism refers to narcissistic traits that do not meet the criteria for a clinical diagnosis but are still present in varying degrees in the general population (Paulhus, 1998). Paulhus' research highlights that narcissistic traits exist on a spectrum, and subclinical forms of narcissism can manifest in milder, yet still impactful, ways in many individuals.

The Grandiose Narcissist

One of the hallmarks of narcissism is grandiosity. Grandiose narcissists exhibit an exaggerated sense of self-importance, believing that they are unique and deserving of special treatment. They are driven by an insatiable need for attention and admiration from others, and their self-worth is closely tied to external validation.

Research has illuminated the characteristics of grandiose narcissists. They tend to have high self-esteem, often displaying an air of self-confidence and a willingness to take on leadership roles (Campbell et al., 2000) ⁶. This sense of grandiosity often fuels their ambition as they actively seek opportunities for recognition and praise. However, this self-focus can come at a cost, as grandiose narcissists may struggle to maintain genuine and empathetic relationships with others.

The Vulnerable Narcissist

While grandiose narcissism is perhaps the more stereotypical form of narcissism, there is another facet known as vulnerable narcissism. Vulnerable narcissists differ in significant ways, primarily in their self-esteem and emotional disposition. These individuals tend to possess fragile self-esteem and are prone to feelings of insecurity and defensiveness (Dickinson & Pincus, 2003) ⁷. They may be hypersensitive to criticism and quick to react defensively to perceived threats to their self-image.

Vulnerable narcissism highlights the multidimensionality of narcissism as a personality trait. Not all narcissists manifest an overt grandiose style; some may carry their narcissism as a deep-seated vulnerability. In this sense, narcissism is not a one-size-fits-all construct, and understanding these variations is crucial for a more comprehensive understanding of its impact on individual behaviour.

Narcissism and Aggression

Research has also explored the connection between narcissism and aggression, shedding light on the dark side of this personality trait. Narcissists, particularly when their grandiose self-image is threatened, may resort to various forms of aggression, ranging from verbal aggression to, in some cases, physical aggression (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998) ⁸

The relationship between narcissism and aggression is complex and has been a subject of considerable inquiry. Narcissists may react aggressively when they perceive challenges to their self-image or believe others are not sufficiently acknowledging their self-perceived greatness. This propensity for aggression highlights the darker side of narcissism and the potential harm it can cause in personal relationships and social interactions.

The dark tetrad of personality encompasses four interrelated dark personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism. Each trait brings its unique colour to malevolent personality traits. Narcissism, as discussed earlier, revolves around self-centredness, with an excessive focus on the self and a strong desire for admiration and validation. Narcissists may use manipulative tactics to maintain their inflated self-image, which can spill over into other dark personality traits.

Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism involves manipulation and strategic thinking. Those high in Machiavellian traits may be particularly adept at exploiting situations and individuals for personal gain, a behaviour that can be exacerbated when combined with narcissism. Grandiose narcissists, with their desire for attention and admiration, may employ Machiavellian tactics to achieve their goals. This can manifest as a calculated and self-serving approach to social interactions.

Psychopathy

A lack of empathy and guilt is a mark of psychopathy, and it can intersect with narcissism in disturbing ways. The grandiosity and callousness of narcissists may mirror the cold and unempathetic nature of psychopaths. Individuals who exhibit both narcissistic and psychopathic traits can be particularly problematic, showing a disregard for the well-being and feelings of others while pursuing their self-serving objectives.

Sadism

Sadism, the final component of the dark tetrad, involves deriving pleasure from the suffering of others. It is worth noting that while narcissism itself does not inherently entail sadistic tendencies, the combination of narcissism with sadism can be especially concerning. Narcissists who relish in others' pain may exploit and manipulate individuals without regard for the harm inflicted as long as it serves to maintain their self-image or desires.

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Who Was Michael Maccoby?

Michael Maccoby was a renowned American psychologist, psychoanalyst, and leadership expert known for his work in Leadership, management, and organisational development. He died on January 11, 2018, aged 94. He made significant contributions to the understanding of leadership and leadership styles, particularly in the context of narcissism.

Maccoby earned a Bachelor of Arts in Social Relations from Harvard University in 1943 and later obtained a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Clinical Psychology from the University of Minnesota in 1950. He worked as a psychoanalyst, organisational consultant, and leadership researcher. His work in leadership circles led him to categorise leaders into various types, including the productive narcissist and the unproductive narcissist.

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Maccoby's Take on Narcissistic Leadership

Maccoby defined narcissism as a personality trait characterised by excessive self-love, an inflated sense of importance, and an insatiable craving for admiration. He also distinguished between productive narcissists and unproductive narcissists. Productive narcissists, he argued, utilise their unwavering self-confidence and thirst for recognition to propel innovation and commercial success. Conversely, unproductive narcissists tend to be more self-absorbed, often wreaking havoc within organisations due to their self-interested decision-making. Those high on narcissism tend to see other people as a means to an end. In other words, others' needs are secondary or even irrelevant and serve only to meet the needs of the narcissist.

One of the central themes within the book revolves around the distinction between task-oriented and socio-emotional Leadership. This idea is similar to Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Y, which suggests that some leaders are more motivated by action and outcomes (Theory X), while others are focused on relationships (Theory Y) ¹¹. Maccoby suggested that narcissistic leaders often lean towards task-oriented Leadership, concentrating on outcomes rather than processes and frequently demonstrating visionary and innovative traits. However, they may struggle with socio-emotional aspects of Leadership, such as forging robust team relationships, exhibiting empathy, and creating a positive organisational culture.

Maccoby identifies four leadership styles correlated with narcissism.

Compulsive Narcissist

Characteristics

• Perfectionism Compulsive narcissists have a strong desire for perfection and may set excessively high standards for themselves and others.
• Rigidity They often display inflexibility in their thinking and behaviour, adhering strictly to rules and protocols.
• Fear of Making Mistakes Compulsive narcissists have an intense fear of making errors and may experience anxiety or guilt when they do.

Leadership Style

• Strong Emphasis on Rules They place a significant emphasis on following established rules and procedures.
• Micromanagement Compulsive narcissists may be inclined to micromanage their teams and expect strict compliance with their standards.
• Excelling in Well-Structured Environments, They tend to thrive in environments where rules and procedures are well-defined but may struggle in more ambiguous or creative settings.

Vulnerable Narcissist

Characteristics:

• Fragile Self-Esteem Vulnerable narcissists have a delicate sense of self-worth and may quickly feel inferior or threatened.
• Hypersensitivity to Criticism They are susceptible to criticism and may react defensively when they perceive slight negativity.
• Prone to Feelings of Inadequacy These individuals often feel inadequate and may constantly seek validation from others.

Leadership Style:

• Defensive Responses Vulnerable narcissists tend to respond defensively to feedback or perceived threats to their self-esteem.
• Difficulty Handling Challenges They may find it challenging to handle adversity or criticism, hindering their leadership effectiveness.
• External Validation Vulnerable narcissists often seek external validation to bolster their fragile self-esteem, which can influence their decision-making.

High-Functioning Narcissist

Characteristics:

• Strong Self-Confidence High-functioning narcissists exhibit a high level of self-confidence and often believe they are exceptional.
• Charismatic and Charming They can be charismatic and charming, which can help them gain followers and supporters.
• Ambitious and Goal-Oriented These individuals are typically ambitious, goal-oriented, and driven to succeed.

Leadership Style:

• Effective Communicators High-functioning narcissists are often effective communicators, which can help them inspire and lead others.
• Rise to Leadership Positions They frequently rise to leadership positions, especially in competitive environments.
• Manipulative Tendencies They may employ manipulative tactics to achieve their goals, and their charm can sometimes conceal their self-serving motives.

Destructive Narcissist

Characteristics:

• Exploitative and Manipulative Destructive narcissists exploit others and may manipulate people for personal gain.
• Lack of Empathy They often display a severe lack of empathy for the feelings and needs of others.
• Prone to Aggressive Behaviours Destructive narcissists may resort to aggressive and harmful actions to achieve their objectives.

Leadership Style:

• Power for Personal Gain They may use their leadership positions for personal gain, even if it means harming others or the organisation.
• Toxic Work Environments Their leadership style can lead to the creation of toxic work environments with high levels of stress and dysfunction.
• Potential damage Destructive narcissists have the potential to significantly damage organisations, relationships, and individuals in their pursuit of personal goals.

Concepts Associated with Narcissistic Leadership According to Maccoby

Maccoby's book introduces several concepts around narcissistic Leadership, one of which is the concept of “narcissistic supply. ” This is where followers either bolster the leader's ego or challenge their behaviour, ultimately determining the leader's efficacy and potential for destructive conduct. Here are other concepts discussed in the book.

Nuanced Exploration

In “Narcissistic Leaders,” Maccoby conducts a nuanced exploration of narcissism within the context of Leadership. He carefully dissects the multifaceted nature of narcissistic traits and distinguishes between productive and unproductive narcissistic leaders. This differentiation is essential as it avoids over-generalisation and recognises that narcissism isn't a one-size-fits-all concept. By doing so, Maccoby acknowledges that narcissistic traits can be harnessed positively when managed effectively. He argues that productive narcissists can drive innovation and success in organisations due to their self-confidence and desire for recognition. This nuanced perspective challenges conventional wisdom, which often paints all narcissists with the same brush, and offers a more realistic understanding of their potential in leadership roles.

Real-World Relevance

Maccoby underpins his theories with many real-world examples, making the book highly relevant and relatable. He draws from diverse domains, including business and politics, to illustrate the concepts he discusses. By anchoring his ideas in the experiences of well-known leaders, he bridges the gap between theoretical constructs and practical applications. For instance, by highlighting figures like Steve Jobs, Maccoby demonstrates how narcissistic traits, when wielded effectively, can drive innovation and business success. This connection to tangible, real-life situations equips readers with a deeper understanding of how narcissistic Leadership manifests and its potential consequences.

Balancing Act

The concept of a “balancing act” is a central theme in Maccoby's work. He argues that it is possible to manage and guide narcissistic leaders effectively rather than simply trying to remove them from leadership positions. This viewpoint challenges the prevalent inclination to perceive narcissistic leaders as inherently detrimental. Maccoby suggests that organisations can harness the strengths of narcissistic leaders, such as their vision and ambition while mitigating their weaknesses through appropriate management strategies. This balanced approach is a valuable insight for organisations, as it offers an alternative to simply sidelining or replacing narcissistic leaders, which may not always be practical or beneficial.

Historical Context

By drawing parallels between contemporary leaders and historical figures, Maccoby highlights the timelessness of narcissistic traits in Leadership. For example, he discusses the leadership styles of historical figures like Napoleon, Churchill, and Roosevelt, showcasing how they exhibited narcissistic traits in their leadership roles. This historical context provides a comprehensive understanding of narcissistic Leadership and illustrates that it is not a recent phenomenon but has existed throughout history. It encourages readers to recognise the enduring relevance of these traits in leadership dynamics.

Gender Consideration

In “Narcissistic Leaders,” Maccoby delves into the complex interplay of gender and narcissistic Leadership. He acknowledges that both men and women can be narcissistic leaders; however, societal and cultural expectations often shape the expression of narcissism differently in each gender. Maccoby's examination of this aspect of Leadership is critical because it underlines the impact of social norms and gender roles on leadership behaviour. By doing so, Maccoby invites readers to consider the broader societal factors that influence leadership dynamics. He also asks us to appreciate the diversity of ways in which narcissistic traits may manifest in leaders of different genders. This gender-conscious perspective adds depth to the discussion and aligns with contemporary debates on diversity and inclusion in Leadership.

Criticisms of Maccoby's Perspective on Narcissistic Leadership

While Michael Maccoby's work on narcissism in Leadership has received acclaim for its innovative insights, it has also attracted significant criticism ¹². These concerns include;

Ethical Concerns

Critics have raised ethical concerns about the idea of managing and leveraging narcissistic leaders. They argue that narcissistic leaders, especially those with destructive tendencies, can harm employees and organisations. Critics question whether it is ethical to harness their narcissistic traits, as it may involve tolerating or even encouraging harmful behaviours.

Lack of Practical Guidance

Some reviewers have noted that Maccoby's work offers valuable insights into understanding narcissistic leaders but falls short in providing concrete, actionable strategies for managing or developing such leaders. They suggest that the book could have offered practical means to help organisations navigate the challenges narcissistic leaders present.

Cultural and Contextual Variation

Critics also argue that Maccoby didn't account for the cultural and contextual variations in how populations perceive and experience narcissistic Leadership. What one culture considers narcissistic behaviour, another may not, and this can influence outcomes for both the organisation and its people.

Overemphasis on Individual Traits

Some critics contend that Maccoby's focus on individual narcissistic traits misses the broader systemic and structural factors that contribute to leadership effectiveness. They argue that Leadership is not solely about the traits of individual leaders. Leadership is also about followers, the organisational culture and systems, and the conditions that enable or constrain leadership behaviours.

Research and Empirical Evidence

Critics have called for more robust empirical research to support Maccoby's claims and classifications. They argue that his work relies heavily on anecdotal evidence, case studies and superficial labelling. Although they may provide some perspective, they may not represent the broader population of narcissistic leaders.

Although criticised, Maccoby's work has generated significant discussion and debate in leadership studies. Some scholars and practitioners have found his insights valuable and thought-provoking, and they appreciate the nuanced exploration of narcissistic Leadership. The criticisms mentioned above reflect the diversity of opinions and perspectives in the field and the ongoing debate about the role of narcissism in Leadership.

The Negative Impact of Narcissistic Leadership on Followers

A 2018 article which examined the impact of narcissistic Leadership on followers indicated that narcissistic leaders are self-absorbed and hold beliefs of entitlement and superiority. Their aggressive tendencies in the face of criticism and inclinations to validate their self-worth by derogating others lead others to perceive them as abusive. The study tested the relationship between leader narcissism and followers' perceptions of abusive supervision and highlighted the following findings.

Vulnerability of Followers

Narcissistic leaders, known for their lack of empathy, sense of entitlement, and exploitative tendencies, were perceived as abusive primarily by followers with low self-esteem and those lower in Core Self-Evaluations. In contrast, followers with high self-esteem or high Core Self-Evaluations (CSE) were less likely to perceive narcissistic leaders as abusive.

Impact on Followers

Vulnerable followers who perceived more abusive behaviour from narcissistic leaders experienced higher levels of psychological distress, including emotional exhaustion. Additionally, their task performance was rated lower by their leaders.

Personality Traits and Perceptions

The research highlights that follower personality traits, such as self-esteem and Core Self-Evaluations, play a significant role in how followers perceive and experience leadership. Those with lower self-esteem and CSEs are more vulnerable and perceive narcissistic leaders as more threatening.

The Buffer Effect

Followers with higher self-esteem and positive Core Self-Evaluations are better equipped to cope with the negative aspects of narcissistic Leadership and perceive these leaders as less threatening. Positive self-appraisals act as a buffer in dealing with the toxic side of narcissistic leaders.

Vulnerable ‘Targets'

The research suggests that the negative impact of narcissistic leaders is most pronounced when vulnerable followers are present, emphasising the importance of follower characteristics in the leader-follower relationship.

The article contributes to the understanding of followers' perceptions of narcissistic leaders and the role of follower personality in moderating these perceptions. It also shows how vulnerable followers may be more susceptible to abusive leadership behaviour. This research has implications for Leadership, organisational behaviour, and the dynamics of abusive supervision in the workplace, emphasising the need to consider both leader and follower characteristics in such interactions.

How To Measure Narcissistic Leadership

Researchers have developed several established measures to evaluate narcissistic traits and tendencies. Here are some of the commonly used methods and scales for measuring narcissism, along with references to academic literature:

Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)

The NPI is one of the most widely used self-report measures of narcissism. It consists of 40 forced-choice items that assess both grandiose and vulnerable aspects of narcissism.¹³

Adaptive and Maladaptive Narcissism Inventory (ANI and MANI)

The ANI and MANI are self-report measures that assess adaptive and maladaptive narcissism, respectively. These scales offer a more nuanced view of narcissism. ¹⁴

Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI)

The PNI focuses on pathological aspects of narcissism, particularly vulnerability and self-centredness. It assesses traits such as entitlement and exploitativeness.¹⁵

Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS)

The HSNS measures vulnerable narcissism. It assesses hypersensitivity to criticism, as well as insecurity and a need for reassurance. ¹⁶

Five-Factor Narcissism Inventory (FFNI)

The FFNI is based on the Five-Factor Model of personality and assesses narcissism across five dimensions: authority, self-sufficiency, superiority, exhibitionism, and exploitativeness. ¹⁷

Grandiose Narcissism Scale (GNS) and Vulnerable Narcissism Scale (VNS)

These scales are designed to differentiate between grandiose and vulnerable aspects of narcissism. They focus on the dimensions of entitlement, exploitation, exhibitionism, and superiority. ¹⁸

Single-Item Narcissism Scale

A single-item measure asks individuals to rate the statement, “I am a narcissist,” on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). It is a brief and easy way to assess narcissism. ¹⁹

These measures offer a range of options for assessing different facets of narcissism. Keep in mind that self-report measures of narcissism are subject to biases such as presentation bias and impression management. Therefore, it can be valuable to use multiple measures and combine them with other assessment methods for a more comprehensive evaluation.

Narcissistic Leadership: All Sizzle And No Steak

The outward display of those high on narcissism is a curious thing–we tend to deem it evidence of the suitability of that individual to lead us. We give them our money, time, our loyalty and even our lives. The red tie-wearing rockstar personality seems to command our attention no matter the cost. We are often proven wrong, and still, we assign them to leadership positions repeatedly. For those who put on a good show, those who are arguably more sizzle than steak, there is the admiration and often unwavering trust of others.

The narcissistic trait associated with dark personality can undoubtedly lead to positive material outcomes. The commercial world of big business seems to be built for these people, who are uncertainly well there. Take Lee Iacocca, for example. He oversaw a dark period in Ford Motor Company's history despite securing the commercial success he craved. The Ford Pinto case is one of the most shocking examples of narcissistic Leadership and its blind pursuit of success.

Effective leadership can often boil down to the influence and say so of a given individual, but it is more than this. Successful leadership is proven in the outcome measured continually over time. Successful leadership is about the interaction between the person, the group, and the environment in which they find themselves. Conditions matter. In an emergency, for example, there is no time for forming meaningful relationships and taking time for measured consultation–we need decision-makers. If the building is falling down, we need to get out. But under normal calm conditions, these people may cause more problems than they solve. Anyway, it's worth considering.

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